Improving Powder Coating Energy Consumption through Smart Chemistry
Chemistry Involved in Recycling Polyurethane Waste
November 7, 2024
Surfactants in Mining and Agriculture
November 12, 2024
0

Improving Energy Efficiency with Powder Coatings

Improving the energy efficiency of industrial coatings has along with environmental concerns, become issues that challenge the world now.  In the past, from the 80’s through the 90’s, although concerns were raised by energy- and environmental watch groups, no longer is it just a call to arms but something that has metastasized and already impacts the world economy, the quality of people’s personal lives and the aquatic- and terrestrial fauna and flora negatively.  In order to introduce energy efficiency in powder coatings, aspects of the process, management and the chemistry of powder coatings have to be assessed.

If you need the assistance of a Polymer Scientist / Material Specialist, contact us.

Opportunities for the recovery of energy during the process steps involved in powder coating.

Figure 1:
recovery of energy during powder coating

Figure 1 explained:

Figure 1 is taken from the website of the North Carolina Advanced Energy Corporation (www.advancedenergy.org) that specifically look at ways to improve on energy efficiency in many areas including business sectors such as powder coating.  Figure 1 is an example of how management is required to understand the process.  It goes further by investigating the amount of energy required for each step as well as identifying areas that contribute to lost energy.  The requirements for a more digital workplace with the ability to quantify the amount of energy expended and the amount lost is immediately clear.  In addition, more modern equipment to reduce waste in the spray booths, pre-treatment plant waste water and gas emissions from boilers will be required.  It appears that some investment will be necessary by individual companies in the powder coating industry to survive and show a profit.

To understand the degradation mechanism of polyurethanes, it is helpful to look at the two ingredients that react to give the final product (Schematic 1).

Managerial and Process aspects related to Energy Saving

Pressing issues pertaining to the environment and energy savings can no longer be ignored (“Low Energy Coating System,” 2022), (“Coating System and Energy Saving : The Challenge Continues,” 2022).  Whereas these topics were considered of great importance in the past few years, sudden, exponential escalation of these topics have forced both governments and the business environment to adapt.

It is certain that there is still a lot of room for improvement in energy efficiency in the powder coating industry (Osbeck et al., 2011).  A study conducted in 2011 on the Swedish powder coating industry anticipated a rise in energy of 50 to 60%.  Even though Covid 19 was not taken into account, or regional conflicts close to the European Union, the anticipated energy crisis has occurred.  In addition, inflation is soaring which curbs economic growth in both Europe and the USA.  Invariably, these external forces will drive management practices and it can be concluded from past experience, that in order to remain competitive, the workforce in many companies will be slashed.  In addition, in order to survive, companies will have to invest in new equipment and processes that will be driven by digital integration of most companies in the powder coating sector to a greater extent than already is the case.

Consequently, because of the expected proliferation of process optimization, management will shift to become more quantitative in terms of management practices.  Continued profitability in the powder coating sector will require hands-on leadership and an advanced knowledge of process integration and technical know-how related to the powder coating process (Aquino, 2007).  The anticipated shift to a more quantitative understanding of processes within the powder coating industry together with a shift to greater automation can realize a potential decrease in energy usage of approximately 25% within the European market and probably close to the same in the US market.  An example of the processes involved in powder coating is given below in Figure 1 (Susser, 2019).

  1. Identify raw materials – in the case of powder coatings these are the parts to be painted or coated.
  2. Identify the final product – in this case the final properly coated parts.
  3. Tour the plant – specifically the management team should be intimately familiar with the layout of the plant. It is suggested that a detailed account of the various stages during the powder coating process are logged, and their material flow characteristics and temperature requirements noted.
  4. Develop the process block diagram – while the initial block diagram is fairly simple as shown in Figure 1, a lot of software is available to interrogate each step further and provide detailed process flow diagrams for each step that includes the hardware required.
  5. Identify energy inputs – Energy may be in the form of direct energy such as electricity or derived energy such as compressed air.
  6. Identify areas where energy is wasted – It can be assumed that energy is wasted at every step of the manufacturing process. In addition, waste streams are generated during the powder coating process such as flue gas emissions, waste water and waste powder.
  7. Identify energy recovery possibilities – this is probably the most important takeaway from this exercise and is therefore investigated more thoroughly below:
    • Use the hot gases from the boiler to:
      • Preheat the combustion air.
      • Preheat the boiler makeup water.
      • Preheat the drying oven combustion air
    • Use wastewater from the pre-treatment waste water heat inbound city water.
  8. Identify opportunities to improve energy efficiency:
    • The electricity used to power electrical motor account for 96% of their life cycle cost.
    • Variable frequency drives in which the speed can be controlled can lead to a lot of improvement in terms of energy cost management.
    • Compressed air is a very inefficient way of storing energy. This is mostly because of inevitable leaks.
    • Compressed air therefore needs a management program that includes:
      • Put in place a compressed air survey and repair program.
      • If it is feasible, replace the compressed air with electric power trains.
      • Look at implementing zero loss condensate drains.
    • Boilers, steam and combustion:
      • Ensure equipment and piping are well insulated.
      • If economically feasible, try and monitor the oxygen content of the flue gas.
      • Use thermographic cameras and ultrasonic leak detectors to conduct steam trap tests.
  9. Identify opportunities for new technology:
    • Update spray nozzles in the pre-treatment line wash and rinse tanks to optimize spray patterns, which could result in pump motor energy savings.
    • Upgrade pre-treatment chemicals to low temperature chemicals that do not require tank heating and gain the savings of heating the tanks.
    • Convert the natural gas convection drying oven to infrared drying. Upgrade the hybrid infrared/natural gas convection curing system to a full infrared curing system.
  10. Implement solutions – while this point seems like a simple step it is often complicated by not understanding where the constraints in a process or business lie.

However, a business is not just a number of steps outlined in a block diagram as in Figure 1.  Factors such as supply of essential consumables during the spray-painting process may render changes to the process to improve efficiency difficult.  In Figure 1 the assumption is that all of these steps as well as some of the suggestions can be easily implemented and monitored.  However, in most cases it may require more effort to enable an energy-efficient plant and it may come down to a radical change of heart at management level and even a redesign of parts of the existing plant.  It is therefore important to consider some management tools that can assist.

Management tools such as six sigma and the theory of constraints may be able to identify bottlenecks in the process but also in the administration of the process.  While it is recommended that the simple block diagram in Figure 1 is further refined by adding process flow diagrams, an analysis of the process(es) that serve to govern the material – and therefore the production flow is required.  Often one or two processes force production to march to its beat, the so-called “drum”[1].  In the theory of constraints, it is referred to as the drum-buffer-rope.

[1] https://www.tocinstitute.org/toc-applications.html

Rather than trying to maximize every resource, only the bottleneck(s) are optimized.  An inventory buffer is used to protect the drum from upstream disruptions and to ensure it is never starved for input material.  An example in the spray dry process might be the supply of cleaned parts to be sprayed or the shortage of a specific parts that causes delays in a carefully optimized production run.  Another example could be an old curing oven or curing ovens that can handle a set volume.  In this implementation of the theory of constraints, the “rope”.  The rope ensures that communication and coordination between all the line functions on the administrative level as well as the operations level occur.  Only by having this “drum-buffer-rope” mechanism in place can the goals of energy saving be realized as well as the myriad of requirements such as on-time delivery of production and ultimately a profitable company.

Six sigma processes lead themselves to improve powder coating quality and improved production turnaround times (Burtner et al., 2004), (Uluskan, 2019).  Six sigma techniques offer a framework that focuses on customer centred quality engineering.  By applying some of the design of experiment techniques which is central to six sigma, defect rates in coating thicknesses can be lowered significantly.  This reduces waste and saves energy and improves the profitability of the company (Uluskan, 2019).  Using the Define-Measure-Analyze-Improve-Control (DMAIC) process together with process maps, cause and effect matrices, failure modes and effects analysis and control charts for process evaluation, an industry specific control plan was delivered specifically for a powder coatings plant (Burtner et al., 2004).

Graphs obtained from the website of the energy information administration in the US (https://www.eia.gov/electricity/ ) illustrating daily highs and lows in electricity consumption

Figure 2:

The graphs in Figure 2 illustrates that electrical power consumption varies during the day.  In order to prepare powder coatings, resins along with additives have to be extruded and pulverized into a fine powder before they can be sold as a powder fit for powder coating.  These unit operations are energy intensive, and this is an aspect that is sometimes forgotten.  The heating of extruders which are huge bulky machines take up a large portion of the energy spent on the extrusion process in general.  Once the machine is heated, it needs periodic heating to make sure it does not dip below a baseline temperature.  By tying the heating stages to low energy peaks during the daily energy cycle.  Costs can be conserved since some countries offer a lower electricity premium when electricity is used at off-peak periods.  Of course, this requires management to be aware of their local power supplier’s energy supply status.  Another part of this energy saving strategy pertains to the type of resin to be extruded.  If possible, those resins with low melting points should be scheduled first.

The Chemistry of low energy consumption powder coatings

While the physical processes and managerial oversight is required to obtain powder coating processes that lower energy consumption, nevertheless the polymers used in powder coatings as well as the additives determine how much further energy can be conserved and energy needs lowered.  An example of this is the project PULVERCOAT project funded by the EU Horizon 2020 SME development instrument, and the subsequent commercial low temperature powder coatings from Pulverit (https://www.pulvercoat.com/ ).  It is estimated that between 40% and 70% energy savings can be achieved as well as the ability to access new markets such as coatings for plastic parts, carbon fiber and wood[1].

To achieve further energy savings, lowering the curing temperature involves modifying the resins used to make powder coatings.  Achieving lower curing temperature resins involves an understanding of the complex interaction of the molecular weight, molecular structure and functionality of the resin polymers.  Polymer molecular weights, for example in polyethers contribute to changes in the melting points and crystallization temperatures (Johansson et al., 2020).

[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8Wxgw2O9Do

Poly (ethylene glycol) melting temperature and crystallization temperature as a function of molecular weight.

Figure 3:

Poly (ethylene glycol) melting temperature and crystallization temperature

Figure 3 illustrates the non-linear dependance of the melting point and the crystallization temperature of selected poly (ethylene glycols).  A similar relationship exists for other aliphatic polymers including aliphatic polyesters (Shen et al., 2017),  Polymer molecular structure has a significant influence on the properties of polymers such as the glass transition temperatures for an industrial polyesters.  Well-known polyesters include Mylar and Dacron.  Structures of polyesters in Figure 4 illustrate increasing the rigidity of the polymer by incorporating groups that contain benzene rings with functionality (terephthalic acid and iso-terephthalic acid).  These groups disrupt the ability of the polymer chain to rotate and in doing so increase the glass transition and melting point temperatures.

The influence of molecular structure on the glass transition temperature and melting points of some selected polyesters and a polycarbonate.

Figure 4:

The reason why polymers such as poly (ethylene glycol) and poly (oxymethylene) have low melting points and crystallinity has to do with their structure.  The structure of these polymers allows for rotation around the oxygen atoms as well as the carbon atoms without hinderance leading to less energy required to melt and flow.

An example of a polyethylene glycol. The red arrow indicates a swivel point.

Figure 5:

Polyethylene glycol. The red arrow indicates a swivel point.

In Figure 5 the principle that allows the low melting- and crystallinity temperatures of polyether siss explained.  Notably the oxygen atom in the molecule acts like a bearing that swivel up and down and around the joint as shown below in Schematic 1.

Schematic 1. An illustration of a pivot that allows rotation up and down and around the pivot point. Similar rotation is possible for the oxygen atom in Figure 5 and to a lesser extent for carbon atoms.

The principles illustrated in the examples above are used to design polymers that have defined micro-structures such as Spandex, a polyurethane whose molecular structure and its contribution to certain properties at a microscopic scale is depicted below.

The molecular structure of Spandex. The concepts explained previously are combined to give hard and soft segments in the same molecule.

Figure 6:

Molecular structure of Spandex

The principles that govern the physical properties of soft rubbery polymers such as poly (ethylene glycol) and the segments that resist rotation and contribute to higher glass transitions are all found in the same molecular repeat structure.  It is also the basis on which resins are designed to allow for lower curing temperatures.

A further aspect of the molecular manipulation of resin structures is the functionality.  Allnex has introduced a series of polyesters with low curing temperatures and various functionalities.

Figure 7. A theoretical polyester structure that allows for lower melting temperatures and greater functionality.

An example of a possible polyester with enhanced COOH functionality as well as a molecular design that allows it to melt and flow at a lower temperature (essential for low temperature crosslinking), is shown in Figure 7.  In Figure 7, the blue arrows indicate swivel points in the molecular structure due to the introduction of monomers such as propylene glycol and enhanced functionality due to trimellitic acid.  Hybrid polyester/epoxy coatings are not new but companies such as Allnex have been able to produce COOH functional polyesters and epoxy resins with epoxy equivalent weights (EEW) of 680 to 800 g.eq-1 with much lower curing requirements.  An example of a high molecular weight epoxy resin is given in Figure 8.

Allnex has 50/50 polyester/epoxy blends with curing temperatures of 140 °C for 10 minutes and at 180 °C for 1 minute

Figure 8:

50/50 polyester/epoxy blends

The polyesters under brand name of Crylcoat ® designed for the epoxy hybrid systems typically have acid values in the region of 70 mg KOH/g.  The carboxylic acid functionality reacts with the epoxy functionality to provide a thermoset as illustrated in Schematic 2 below.

An example of an epoxy-functional resin reacting with a polyester having carboxylic acid functionality

Allnex also provides polyesters that can react with hydroxy alkyl amides (HAA) such as Primid XL 552 at much reduced temperatures.  Typical curing temperatures using low temperature curing polyesters and HAA are for example 140 °C for 10 minutes and a curing time of 1 minute at 180 °C.  Depending on the area of application (outdoor or architectural), the acid value of the polyester resins can vary from as low as 18 mg KOH/g to 90 mg KOH/g.

Schematic 2:

The curing reaction involving hydroxyalkyl amide (HAA) and a carboxylic acid-functional polyester

Figure 9:

The curing reaction involving hydroxyalkyl amide (HAA) and a carboxylic acid-functional polyester

Low temperature curing resins based on tryglycidylisocyanurate (TGIC) are also available.  The TGIC is known as ARALDITE PT 810.  Curing regimes for TGIC-based low curing polyesters include 12 minutes at 140 °C and 4 minutes at 200 °C.  This curing regime is also operative for the glycidyl ester curing agent ARALDITE PT 910 and 912.

Curing process involving TGIC and acid-0functional polyester resin

Figure 10:

The structure of a glycidyl ester or ARALDITE PT 910 as an example is given below in Figure 11.

A triglycidyl ester used by Allnex in certain low temperature curing applications. Unlike TGIC it is less toxic and a more sustainable alternative

Figure 11:

Additional improvements in low temperature crosslinking involves the use of polymers that are easily hydrolized or attacked by species that can react with the functional groups in the polymer backbone.  A system such as this is described in EP 3478774A1 (Weaver et al., 2017).  The synthesis of polyanhydrides are covered by Ghosh (Ghosh et al., 2022).  The reaction is a steady build-up of molecular weight by splitting out water.  A typical acid that can be considered for this type of reaction is sebacic acid.

Molecular weight increase of a difunctional organic acid to yield a poly anhydride. In this case m < n < x

Figure 12:

Molecular weight increase of a difunctional organic acid

Polyanhydrides are used in slow-release applications (Carbone & Uhrich, 2009).  Depending on the structure and molecular weight of the poly anhydride, the rate at which hydrolysis can occur may be controlled.

Hydrolysis of polyanhydride based on salicylic acid and sebacic acid

Figure 13:

In Figure 13, water is shown as the nucleophile that attacks the polyanhydride copolymer.  In the case of powder coatings, polymers with hydroxy -, carboxylic acid – and especially amine functionality can be successfully combined to provide low temperature curing powder coatings.

FAQ's about low-temperatures in powder coating

What are the benefits of using low-temperature powder coatings in industrial applications?


Low-temperature powder coatings offer several significant benefits for industrial applications. First, they cure at lower temperatures (typically between 120°C and 140°C), which reduces energy consumption during the curing process. This energy efficiency translates to lower operational costs, particularly important as energy prices continue to rise. Additionally, these coatings are compatible with heat-sensitive substrates like plastics and wood, which traditional coatings may damage due to high heat. This versatility allows manufacturers to expand their product offerings without compromising quality. Furthermore, low-temperature powder coatings provide excellent durability and resistance to corrosion, making them suitable for a variety of environments, including outdoor applications. Their ability to cure quickly also enhances production efficiency by reducing turnaround times. Overall, these coatings contribute to a more sustainable manufacturing process while maintaining high aesthetic and functional standards.

How do low-cure powder coatings compare to traditional powder coatings in terms of energy efficiency?


Low-cure powder coatings significantly outperform traditional powder coatings regarding energy efficiency. Traditional powder coatings typically require curing temperatures between 180°C and 200°C, leading to higher energy consumption during the curing phase. In contrast, low-cure powders can cure effectively at temperatures as low as 120°C to 140°C, resulting in energy savings of up to 20% or more. This reduction in temperature not only lowers energy costs but also decreases CO2 emissions associated with the curing process. The ability to achieve similar or even superior performance at lower temperatures makes low-cure powders a more sustainable choice for manufacturers looking to minimize their environmental impact while maintaining product quality. As industries increasingly prioritize eco-friendly practices, the shift towards low-cure powder coatings reflects a growing commitment to sustainability.

What industries can benefit the most from using energy-efficient powder coatings?


Several industries stand to gain significantly from using energy-efficient powder coatings. The automotive industryis a major beneficiary, where lightweight and durable coatings are essential for vehicle components that require both protection and aesthetic appeal. The furniture manufacturing sector also benefits, as it often uses materials sensitive to heat; low-temperature coatings allow for effective finishing without damaging these substrates. Additionally, construction and agricultural machinery industries can utilize these coatings for equipment exposed to harsh weather conditions, ensuring longevity and resistance against corrosion. Other sectors include electronics, where precision and protection are critical, and appliances, where energy efficiency is increasingly demanded by consumers. Overall, any industry that requires robust surface finishes while aiming for sustainability can benefit from adopting energy-efficient powder coatings.

How do low-temperature powder coatings impact the overall production time in manufacturing?


Low-temperature powder coatings positively impact overall production time in manufacturing by reducing curing times significantly. Traditional powder coatings often require longer curing periods due to higher temperatures; however, low-temperature options can cure faster at lower temperatures or achieve similar results in shorter time frames. This acceleration allows products to move through the production line more quickly, enabling manufacturers to meet tight deadlines and increase output without compromising quality. Additionally, faster curing times mean that multiple batches can be processed in a single day, enhancing overall productivity and efficiency in manufacturing operations. By streamlining the coating process through reduced curing times, manufacturers can improve their workflow and responsiveness to market demands.

What are the environmental benefits of using low-cure powder coatings?


The environmental benefits of using low-cure powder coatings are substantial. First and foremost, these coatings reduce energy consumption during the curing process due to their lower temperature requirements, which leads to decreased greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy use. Additionally, many low-cure powders are formulated without volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are harmful pollutants that contribute to air quality issues and health problems. By eliminating VOCs from the coating process, manufacturers can create a safer working environment and reduce their overall environmental footprint. Furthermore, the recyclability of excess powder reduces waste generated during application since unused powder can be reclaimed and reused rather than discarded. Together, these factors make low-cure powder coatings an eco-friendly choice that aligns with global sustainability goals.

How do low-temperature powder coatings impact the durability of sensitive materials like plastics and wood?


Low-temperature powder coatings enhance the durability of sensitive materials such as plastics and wood by providing a protective layer without subjecting them to damaging heat levels during curing. Traditional high-temperature curing processes can warp or degrade these materials; however, low-temperature options allow for effective coating while preserving the integrity of the substrate. These coatings also offer excellent adhesion properties and resistance to scratches, UV light, and moisture, further protecting sensitive materials from environmental damage over time. As a result, products coated with low-temperature powders maintain their aesthetic appeal and structural integrity longer than those treated with conventional methods.

How do low-temperature powder coatings contribute to reducing CO2 emissions?


Low-temperature powder coatings contribute significantly to reducing CO2 emissions primarily through their energy-efficient curing process. By requiring lower temperatures (typically 120°C – 140°C) compared to traditional powders (180°C – 200°C), they decrease the amount of fossil fuel or electricity needed for curing operations. This reduction in energy consumption directly correlates with lower carbon emissions produced during manufacturing processes. Additionally, as industries transition towards more sustainable practices by adopting eco-friendly formulations that minimize VOCs and other harmful substances, they further enhance their contributions toward reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions. As companies strive for greener operations amid rising environmental concerns, utilizing low-temperature powder coatings represents a proactive step toward achieving sustainability goals.

What are the cost savings associated with using low-temperature powder coatings in high-volume production?


Using low-temperature powder coatings in high-volume production can lead to significant cost savings across several areas. Firstly, the reduced energy requirements for curing at lower temperatures translate into lower utility bills—a crucial factor as energy costs continue to rise globally. Secondly, faster curing times allow manufacturers to increase throughput rates; this means more products can be completed within a given timeframe without needing additional resources or labor costs associated with longer processing times. Additionally, since many low-temperature powders eliminate VOCs and other hazardous materials from the coating process, companies may save on regulatory compliance costs related to environmental management practices. Overall, these combined factors make low-temperature powder coatings an economically attractive option for manufacturers focused on maximizing efficiency while minimizing costs.

How does the curing time of low-temperature powder coatings compare to traditional powder coatings?


The curing time of low-temperature powder coatings is generally shorter than that of traditional powder coatings due to their ability to cure effectively at lower temperatures. While traditional powders typically require heating components at around 180°C – 200°C for approximately 10-20 minutes depending on thickness and substrate type, low-cure powders can achieve similar results at temperatures around 120°C – 140°C within shorter time frames—often reducing total processing time by up to 25%. This reduction not only streamlines production but also allows manufacturers greater flexibility in scheduling jobs while maintaining high-quality finishes on their products. Ultimately, this efficiency makes low-temperature powders an appealing choice for companies looking to optimize their coating processes without sacrificing performance or quality.

10. Are there any innovative technologies currently being developed for better polyurethane recycling?

Currently, one of the more innovative ideas in terms of PU recycling is the use of enzymes.  Enzymes are biological catalysts excreted by micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi.  The possibility exist to obtain more pure recycled raw materials such as polyols that can be re-used as actual raw materials and not just functional fillers.

References

Aquino, R. (2007). Three steps to lower energy use. Products Finishing. https://www.pfonline.com/articles/three-steps-to-lower-energy-use

Burtner, J., Durre, C., & Smith, N. (2004). Application of quality improvement techniques to the powder coat process. IIE Annual Conference and Exhibition 2004, 5109–5141.

Carbone, A. L., & Uhrich, K. E. (2009). Design and synthesis of fast-degrading poly(anhydride-esters). Macromolecular Rapid Communications, 30(12), 1021–1026. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.200900029

Coating system and energy saving : the challenge continues. (2022). Eurotherm, 1–11. https://eurotherm.eu/coating-system-and-energy-saving/

Ghosh, R., Arun, Y., Siman, P., & Domb, A. J. (2022). Synthesis of Aliphatic Polyanhydrides with Controllable and Reproducible Molecular Weight. Pharmaceutics, 14(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14071403

Johansson, P., Paberit, R., Rilby, E., Göhl, J., Swenson, J., Refaa, Z., & Jansson, H. (2020). Cycling stability of poly(ethylene glycol) of six molecular weights: Influence of thermal conditions for energy applications. ACS Applied Energy Materials, 3(11), 10578–10589. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.0c01621

Low energy coating system. (2022). Eurotherm, 1–11. https://eurotherm.eu/low-energy-cost-coating-plants/

Osbeck, S., Bergek, C., Klässbo, A., Thollander, P., Harvey, S., & Rohdin, P. (2011). Energy Efficiency Opportunities within the Powder Coating Industry. Proceedings of the World Renewable Energy Congress – Sweden, 8–13 May, 2011, Linköping, Sweden, 57, 1700–1707. https://doi.org/10.3384/ecp110571700

Shen, J., Caydamli, Y., Gurarslan, A., Li, S., & Tonelli, A. E. (2017). The glass transition temperatures of amorphous linear aliphatic polyesters. Polymer, 124(March 2018), 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2017.07.054

Susser, J. (2019). Powder Coating Energy Efficiency : Ten Steps for Process Energy Analysis. 1–13. https://www.advancedenergy.org/2019/04/18/tensteppowdercuringenergyanalysis/

Uluskan, M. (2019). Design of Experiments Based Six Sigma DMAIC Application: Electrostatic Powder Coating Process. 2019 3rd International Symposium on Multidisciplinary Studies and Innovative Technologies, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISMSIT.2019.8932943.Abstract

Weaver, I. W., Watson, R., Hendrikus, R., Brinkhuis, G., Bosma, M., Jones, P., White, S., Baxevanis, D., & Cavalieri, R. (2017). EP3478774A1 Low temperature cure powder coating compositions.

Related posts

March 12, 2025

Agricultural Film Report Example

Read more
January 10, 2025

Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship (QSAR)

Read more
November 26, 2024

Technologies for Detecting Opioids

Read more